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Huaqun Xingjie - A Survey on blockchain Technology and its Security - 2022 March

participant, in order to achieve a globally unified view.
In a trustless environment Blockchain provides users with
desirable features of decentralization, autonomy, integrity,
immutability, verification, fault-tolerance, attracted great
academic and industrial attention in the recent few years,
anonymity, auditability and transparency [1] [2] [3]. With
these advanced features, the Blockchain technology has
attracted great academic and industrial attention in the recent
few years.
∗
This work has been done when the author was with Institute for Infocomm
Research, A*STAR, Singapore.
To help and benefit someone to understand the Blockchain
technology and Blockchain security issues, especially for
users who use Blockchain to do the transactions, and for
researchers who will be developing Blockchain technology
and addressing Blockchain security issues, we put in our effort
and time to conduct the comprehensive survey and analysis on
Blockchain technology and its security issues. First, we
identify keywords, namely, Blockchain, survey, consensus
algorithm, smart contract, risk, and Blockchain security to
search publications and information on the Internet. Second,
we survey on papers related to Blockchain published in top
security conferences and journals, e.g., USENIX Security
Symposium, IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy, IEEE
Transactions journals, and so on. In this way, we have survey
as many papers as possible so as to overcome the study and
results biases. Our survey paper presents the comprehensive
findings from other research work.
The main contributions for our survey include: 1) We
compare various consensus algorithms with detailed analysis
and numerical figures and present the cryptography
fundamental of Blockchain; 2) We present the rich
information about smart contract and its security; 3) We
explore the widely used applications of Blockchain
technology, including but not limited to different
cryptocurrencies; 4) We conduct comprehensive analysis on
the security risks, real attacks, bugs, root causes and recent
security measures on Blockchain itself; Last but not least, 5)
The challenges and research trends are summarized and
presented in this paper for the further effort to development
the Blockchain technology for the massive deployments.
The rest of paper is organized in the following. Section II
introduces the overview. Section III describes the Blockchain
technology in details including consensus algorithms, smart
contract and cryptography for Blockchain, while the
comprehensive Blockchain applications are presented in
Section IV. The security risks and real attacks on Blockchain
are presented in Section V, and security measures are
described in Section VI. Section VII analyses the challenges
and the research trends for Blockchain. Section VIII
summarizes the related survey works to show our
contribution. Finally, Section IX concludes our work.
II.
O
VERVIEW OF
B
LOCKCHAIN
H
ISTORY
In 1982 David Chaum is the first known person to propose
a Blockchain-like protocol in his PhD thesis [4]. In 1991,
Haber and Stornetta described a secured chain of blocks
cryptographically [5]. In 1993, Bayer, Haber and Stornetta
incorporated Merkle trees to the design [6]. In 1998, ‘bit gold’
- a decentralized digital currency mechanism was designed by
Nick Szabo [7]. In 2008 Satoshi Nakamoto introduced
Bitcoin, electronic cash with a purely peer-to-peer network
Journal Pre-proof

[8]. It was also in 2008 that the term of Blockchain was first
introduced as the distributed ledger behind Bitcoin
transactions [9].
In 2013, Vitalik Buterin proposed Ethereum in his
whitepaper [10]. In 2014, the development of Ethereum was
crowdfunded, and on 30 July 2015 Ethereum network went
live. The emerging of Ethereum implied that Blockchain 2.0
was born because different from all the various Blockchain
projects that focused on developing altcoins (other coins
which are similar to Bitcoin), Ethereum enables people to
connect through trustless distributed applications on its own
Blockchain. In other words, while Bitcoin is developed for a
distributed ledger, Ethereum is developed for a distributed
data storage plus smart contracts which are small computer
programs. Ethereum 2.0 upgrades the Ethereum Network
which aims to boost the speed, scalability, efficiency and
security of the network. The upgrades have 3 phases crossing
from 2020 till 2022.
In 2015 the Linux Foundation announced the Hyperledger
project, which is open-source software of Blockchains. With
the aim to build enterprise Blockchain, Hyperledger
Blockchain frameworks are different from the Bitcoin and
Ethereum. Under Hyperledger, there are eight Blockchain
frameworks including Hyperledger Besu, Hyperledger Fabric,
Hyperledger Indy, Hyperledger Sawtooth, Hyperledger
Burrow, Hyperledger Iroha, Hyperledger Grid and
Hyperledger Labs, five Hyperledger tools including
Hyperledger Avalon, Hyperledger Cactus, Heperledger
Caliper, Hyperledger Cello and Hyperledger Explorer, and
four libraries including Hyperledger Aries, Hyperledger Quilt,
Hyperledger Transact and Hyperledger URSA [11].
The history of Blockchain is summarized in Fig. 1. Bitcoin
and Ethereum are public Blockchains since anyone can

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