Any number of other genders (semantically or formally defined), including neuter, vegetable, women, fire, and dangerous things, etc.
{Need to separate out the relevant notions so that linguists can combine the ones that they need}
(Refs: Corbett, Greville. 1991. Gender
Foley 1991. Yimas grammar. Stanford)
Dobrin, Lise. 1998, The morphosyntatic reality of phonological form. Yearbook of Morphology 1997, ed. by Geert Booij and Jaap van Marle, 59-81. Dordrecht, Foris.
2003. Kibrik, Alexander. Nominal Inflection Galore EUROTYP ed. by Franz Plank.
Class:
6.7 ModalityFeature:
Modality is the theory of possibility and necessity. As a grammatical feature, it represents those dimensions in the domains of knowledge (epistemic modality), social relations (deontic modality) and ability (abilitive modality), and possibly others.
Any
|
Possibility
|
Epistemic
|
Necessity
|
Deontic
|
Other
|
Abilitive
|
EpistemicPoss
|
Permissive
|
EpistemicNec
|
WeakObligative
|
Obligative
|
MentalAbilitive
|
PhysicalAbilitive
|
|
|
|
ConditionalPhysicalAbilitive
|
|
Figure 10. Entailment relations among Modality feature values
Instances:
6.7.1 AbilitiveModality:
AbilitiveModality indicates the capacity of an agent to perform some action, regardless of type or condition.
6.7.2 ConditionalPhysicalAbilitiveModality:
ConditionalPhysicalAbilitiveModality indicates ability of an agent to perform some action, requiring the presence of conditions external to the agent (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 177; Palmer 2001: 76).
6.7.3 DeonticModality:
DeonticModality indicates that an agent has permission or is under an obligation to perform some action.
6.7.4 EpistemicModality:
EpistemicModality indicates that a state of affairs is known to be possible or certain (necessary).
6.7.5 EpistemicNecessityModality:
EpistemicNecessityModality indicates that the expressed proposition is known to be true. Also known as CategoricalModality (Palmer 2001: 37, 68-69).
6.7.6 EpistemicPossibilityModality:
EpistemicPossibilityModality indicates that the designated state of affairs is not known not to be true.
6.7.7 MentalAbilitiveModality:
MentalAbilitiveModality indicates that an agent has the capacity to perform some mental action (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 192; Palmer 2001: 77).
6.7.8 NecessityModality:
NecessityModality indicates that the described state of affairs is necessary, either directly, or because of a requirement on the part of an agent.
6.7.9 ObligativeModality:
ObligativeModality indicates that an agent is required to perform the action expressed by the predicate (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 177; Palmer 2001: 71)..
6.7.10 PermissiveModality:
PermissiveModality indicates that an agent has permission to perform the action expressed by the predicate (Palmer 2001: 10, 71).
6.7.11 PhysicalAbilitiveModality:
PhysicalAbilitiveModality indicates that an agent has the physical capacity to perform some action (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 192; Palmer 2001: 77).
6.7.12 PossibilityModality:
PossibilityModality indicates that the designated state of affairs is possible, either directly, or because an agent has the ability or permission to carry it out.
6.7.13 WeakObligativeModality:
WeakObligativeModality indicates that an agent is under a moral obligation to perform the action expressed by the predicate (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 186-187).
Class:
6.8 MoodFeature:
Mood, also known as Force, expresses the grammatical mood or force of a proposition. Among the traditionally defined values are Declarative, Imperative and Interrogative. These values are a somewhat mixed bag of attitutude (e.g. optative, volitive, subjunctive) and speech-act (e.g. imperative, commissive) values. It may be desirable to separate them out.
Any
|
Indicative
|
Subjunctive
|
Timitive
|
Other
|
Optative
|
Dubitive
|
Figure 11. Entailment relations among Mood feature values
Instances:
6.8.1 DubitiveMood:
DubitiveMood indicates a speaker's doubt or uncertainty about a proposition (Palmer 2001).
6.8.2 IndicativeMood:
IndicativeMood indicates that the speaker believes the expression to be true.
6.8.3 OptativeMood:
Optative indicates that the speaker wishes or hopes that the expressed proposition be the case (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 179; Palmer 2001: 204).
6.8.4 SubjunctiveMood:
SubjunctiveMood indicates that the expression is not believed to be true.
6.8.5 TimitiveMood:
TimitiveMood encodes that the speaker fears something expressed in what is said (Palmer 2001).
Class:
6.9 NumberFeature:
Number is a grammatical category often found on nouns, pronouns, and verb agreement that expresses count distinctions--such as 'one' or 'more than one'. The count distinctions typically, but not always, correspond to the actual count of the referents of the marked noun or Pronoun (Add Corbett, Greville G. Number.) Crystal 1980: 245; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 155; Mish et al. 1990: 811).
Any
|
Paucal
|
Plural
|
Other
|
SmallPaucal
|
Several
|
LargePlural
|
Singular
|
Dual
|
Trial
|
Multal
|
Figure 12. Entailment relations among all Number feature values
-Need to separate number out from nouns
-Need to include Pluractionals (similar to Frequentative, particularly in Africanist literature)
Prototypical Languages: Chechen, Ainu, Svan, Yurok, Bole
Cusic, David D. 1981 The verbal plurality of Aspect.
Shuh, Russell. ...Chadic.
Wood, Esther. In progress diss , a typological survey of pluractionals. ??ejwood@berkeley.edu or ask Jeff Good.
Instances:
6.9.1 DualNumber:
Dual refers to two members of a designated class (Crystal 1997: 265). It typically occurs in a number system together with Singular and LargePlural, or with Singular, Trial and Multal.
6.9.2 LargePluralNumber:
LargePlural is used in a number system together with Singular and Dual or with SmallPaucal. It core:entails Plural and is entailed by Multal. See comment under Plural.
6.9.3 MultalNumber:
Multal refers to a large number of individuals. It core:entails LargePlural.
6.9.4 PaucalNumber:
Paucal refers to a few members of a designated class (Crystal 1997: 265). It occurs in a number system together with Multal. It is entailed by SmallPaucal.
6.9.5 PluralNumber:
Plural refers to more than one member of a designated class. It is used in a number system together with Singular only, as in English. We deprecate the definition in which it refers to any number larger than the largest individual number value in the system, e.g. 'more than two' in some languages (Crystal 1980: 245; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 178; Crystal 1987: 428; Mish et al. 1990: 906). We recommend LargePlural for systems in which the value is used together with Singular and Dual, and Multal for systems in which the value is used together with Singular, Dual and Trial.
6.9.6 SeveralNumber:
Several is used in a system together with Singular and LargePlural or Multal to refer to a small, non-singular number of individuals.
6.9.7 SingularNumber:
Singular refers to one member of a designated class (Crystal 1980: 245; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 210).
6.9.8 SmallPaucalNumber:
SmallPaucal occurs in a number system together with LargePlural, referring to a very small number of individuals. It core:entails Paucal and is entailed by both Singular and Dual.
6.9.9 TrialNumber:
Trial refers to three members of a designated class (Pei and Gaynor 1954: 220; Gove, et al. 1966: 2439).
Class:
6.10 PersonFeature: (cross-ref. to honorifics)
Person indicates the number and nature of the participants in a situation. Usually a three-way contrast is found: first, second, and third person. Other formal distinctions in languages include: inclusive/exlusive, honorific/intimate, and male/female (Crystal 1997: 285).
Refs: Siewierska 2004, Person. CUP.
Any
|
Participant
|
Third
|
Other
|
First
|
Second
|
3Proximative
|
3Obviative
|
|
1Inclusive
|
1Exclusive
|
|
Figure 13. Entailment relations among Person feature values
Instances:
6.10.1 FirstPerson:
Refers to the speaker, and possibly others (Crystal 1997: 285). FirstPersonSingular is a structure combining FirstPerson and SingularNumber, referring to the speaker only.
6.10.2 FirstPersonExclusive:
Refers to the speaker and one or more nonparticipants, but not hearer(s). Contrasts with FirstPersonInclusive (Crystal 1997: 285).
6.10.3 FirstPersonInclusive:
Refers to the speaker, hearer(s) and possibly others. Contrasts with FirstPersonExclusive (Crystal 1997: 285).
6.10.4 ParticipantPerson:
Refers to any combination of participants (speaker and addressee(s)) and possibly others.
6.10.5 SecondPerson:
Refers to the person(s) the speaker is addressing (Crystal 1997: 285).
6.10.6 ThirdPerson:
Refers to nonparticipants (other than the speaker or hearer(s)), i.e. other people, things, animals, etc. (Crystal 1997: 285).
(needs to include, somewhere, the category of Impersonal:
NPs To deal with impersonal 3p reference (Fr. on) - usage issue.
Vs: -n-ta constructions Kibort, Anna. In-process dissertation. Passive and Passive-like constructions in English and Polish. online)
Langs: Ancient Egyptian
6.10.7 ThirdPersonObviative:
Obviative refers to one or more non-participants that are in some way further removed from the speaker than other non-particpants.
6.10.8 ThirdPersonProximative:
Proximative refers to one or more non-participants that are in some way distinct/closer to the speaker than other non-particpants.
Class:
6.11 PolarityFeature:
We provisionally assume this feature to take on just the values Positive and Negative. As a morphosyntactic feature, generally only Negative is "marked", i.e. associated with a linguistic expression.
Any
|
Negative
|
Positive
|
Other
|
Figure 14. Entailment relations among Polarity feature values
Instances:
6.11.1 NegativePolarity:
A construction that expresses the contradiction of some or all of a proposition (Crystal 1980: 257). Note: this value is not to be confused with the notion "Negative Polarity Item", which is an expression that occurs in the scope of Negation (i.e. Negative Polarity).
6.11.2 PositivePolarity:
In general, positive polarity refers to an assertion that contains no marker of negation (Crystal 1980: 299).
Class:
6.12 SizeFeature:
Feature for relative size. Currently only Diminutive and Augmentative defined as possible values. Typically specified "derivationally" rather than by inflection.
Any
|
Diminutive
|
Augmentative
|
Other
|
Figure 15. Entailment relations among Size feature values
Instances:
6.12.1 Augmentative:
A special form of a noun that signals that the object being referred to is large relative to the usual size of such an object (Crystal 1980: 34).
6.12.2 Diminutive:
A special form of a noun that signals that the object being referred to is small relative to the usual size of such an object. In some cases it may be used as a term of endearment (Crystal 1980: 116).
Class:
6.13 TenseFeature:
Tense is the grammatical encoding of an event's location in time. It is typically marked on the verb and deictically refers to the time of the event or state denoted by the verb in relation to some other temporal reference point (Comrie 1985: 9; Crystal 1987: 384).
Any
|
Simple
|
Relative
|
Other
|
NonFuture
|
NonPast
|
RelPast
|
RelPresent
|
RelFuture
|
Past
|
Present
|
Future
|
PastIn
Past
|
PastIn
Future
|
FutureIn
Past
|
FutureIn
Future
|
PreHodier-nalPast
|
Recent
Past
|
Still
Present
|
Near
Future
|
PostHodier-nalFuture
|
|
Remote
Past
|
Hester-nalPast
|
Hodier-nalPast
|
HodiernalFuture
|
Hester-nalFuture
|
Remote
Future
|
|
ImmediatePast
Dual
|
ImmediateFuture
Multal
|
|
Figure 16. Entailment relations among Tense feature values
Instances:
6.13.1 FutureInFutureTense:
FutureInFutureTense locates the situation in question in the future, relative to a temporal reference point that itself is located in the future relative to the moment of utterance.
6.13.2 FutureInPastTense:
FutureInPastTense locates the situation in question in the future, relative to a contextually determined temporal reference point that itself must be located in the past relative to the moment of utterance.
6.13.3 FutureTense:
FutureTense locates the situation in question later than the present moment (time of speaking.)
6.13.4 HesternalFutureTense:
Defined by analogy with HesternalPastTense. core:entails both NearFutureTense and PostHodiernalFutureTense.
6.13.5 HesternalPastTense:
HesternalPastTense locates the situation in question somewhere in the span beginning with the period defined culturally as 'yesterday' and extends back through some period that is considered nonremote (Comrie 1985:87-88; Dahl 1985:126).
6.13.6 HodiernalFutureTense:
HodiernalFutureTense locates the situation in question after the moment of utterance within the span culturally defined as 'today' (Comrie 1985: 86; Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 247).
6.13.7 HodiernalPastTense:
HodiernalPastTense locates the situation in question before the moment of utterance within the span culturally defined as 'today' (Comrie 1985:87; Dahl 1985:125-126). Contrasts with PreHodiernalPastTense.
6.13.8 ImmediateFutureTense:
ImmediateFutureTense, also called 'close future', locates the situation in question shortly after the moment of utterance (Dahl 1985:121; Comrie 1985:94; Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 244-245).
6.13.9 ImmediatePastTense:
ImmediatePastTense locates the situation in question at a time considered very recent in relation to the moment of utterance (Comrie 1985: 87).
6.13.10 NearFutureTense:
Defined here by analogy with RecentPastTense. core:entails FutureTense and entailed by HesternalFutureTense and HodiernalFutureTense.
6.13.11 NonFutureTense:
NonFutureTense locates the situation in question at or before the moment of utterance, and contrasts with a FutureTense (Comrie 1985: 49).
6.13.12 NonPastTense:
NonPastTense locates the situation in question at or after the moment of utterance, and contrasts with a past tense (Comrie 1985:48-49)..
6.13.13 PastInFutureTense:
Locates the situation in question in the future, prior to a reference time in the future.
6.13.14 PastInPastTense:
Locates the situation in question prior to a reference time in the past. Also known as PluperfectTense.
6.13.15 PastTense:
PastTense locates the situation in question prior to the present moment, with no specification on the distance in time (Comrie 1985).
6.13.16 PostHodiernalFutureTense:
PostHodiernalFutureTense locates the situation in question after the span that is culturally defined as 'today' (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 247).
6.13.17 PreHodiernalPastTense:
PreHodiernalPastTense locates the situation in question before that of a contrasting HodiernalPastTense. According to Bybee, Perkins, Pagliuca 1994: 98. this category must be defined relative to a HodiernalPastTense.
| 