introduction 13
tor, printed paper map, Internet. After the map is created, but before
production/
reproduction, one should critique and edit the map. Are there errors of fact or errors
in spelling? Do the symbols, colors, and lines work? Finally, the map is “published.”
This could be as simple as printing from the computer, making Xerox copies, or post-
ing on the Web, or the map can be sent to a printer and publisher for distribution in
thousands of copies.
Antecedents of modeRn cARtogRAPhy
Throughout the history of cartography there have been
periods of great change
interspersed with periods of quiescence. The periods
of change encompass many
decades and may be major or minor. Some periods of change are so great that they
are described as revolutions. The revolutions are characterized by three factors: tech-
nology, data, and social/philosophical changes. One period of major revolution in
the Western world was the Renaissance (c. 1350–c. 1650). A primary technological
factor was the invention of printing, which lead to a wider dissemination of ideas.
Books and maps became available to a greater number of people. European explora-
tion of the western and southern hemispheres provided information, that is, data,
that allowed a more accurate and complete representation of the continental outlines.
Social and philosophical shifts, including the rediscovery of Ptolemy’s works, lead to
changes in the nature of maps. The scope of this text does not allow a complete his-
tory of cartography, but because events in the 20th century, especially the last half
of the century, are important for understanding current theory and practices, this
period is summarized here. Some references to more complete histories are provided
in the bibliography.
