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Judith A. Tyner. Principles of map design. New York. „The Guilford Press”, 2010

AlBeRs eQUAl-AReA conIc
Classification 
Conic; equal area.
Graticule 
Meridians: equally spaced, straight lines converging at a common point, 
normally beyond the pole. Parallels: unequally spaced concentric arcs. Poles 
are circular arcs.
Scale 
True along the one or two standard parallels; constant along any given par-
allel.
Distortion 
Free of angular and scale distortion only along the one or two standard par-
allels.
Usage 
Frequently used for U.S. maps, thematic maps; recommended for equal-area 
maps of E–W midlatitude regions.
PolyconIc
Classification 
Polyconic; neither equal area nor conformal.
Graticule 
Meridians: central meridian is a straight line; all others are complex curves. 
Parallels: equator is a straight line; all others are nonconcentric circular arcs 
spaced at true distances along the central meridian.
Scale 
True along the central meridian and each parallel.
Distortion 
Distortion-free only along the central meridian; extensive distortion if there 
is a great E–W range.
Usage 
Sole projection for USGS topographic maps until the 1950s.
Other 
Not recommended for regional maps.
gnomonIc
Classification 
Azimuthal; perspective; neither equal area nor conformal.
Graticule
Polar aspect. Meridians: equally spaced, straight lines intersecting at the 
central pole. Parallels: unequally spaced, concentric circles centered on the 
pole; spacing increases toward the equator. Equator and opposite pole can-
not be shown.
Scale 
True only at the center.
Distortion 
Only the center is distortion-free; distortion increases rapidly away from the 
center.
Usage 
To show great circle paths as straight lines; for navigation.
Other 
All great circle arcs show as straight lines; can be used in polar, equatorial, 
and oblique aspects.

228 aPPenDiCes 
steReogRAPhIc
Classification 
Azimuthal; conformal; perspective.
Graticule 
Polar aspect. Meridians: equally spaced, straight lines intersecting at the 
central pole. Parallels: unequally spaced, concentric circles centered on the 
pole. Opposite pole cannot be shown.
Scale 
True only at center.
Distortion 
Only the center is distortion-free.
Usage 
For topographic maps of polar regions.
Other 
All great or small circles show as circles or straight lines. Can be used in 
polar, equatorial, or oblique aspects.
oRthogRAPhIc
Classification 
Azimuthal; perspective; neither conformal nor equal area.
Graticule 
Polar aspect. Meridians: equally spaced, straight lines intersecting at the 
central pole. Parallels: unequally spaced circles centered at the pole; spacing 
decreases away from the central pole. Only one hemisphere can be shown.
Scale 
True only at the center.
Distortion 
Only the center is distortion-free.
Usage 
Pictorial views of the earth and the moon.
Other 
Has the look of a globe. Can be used in polar, equatorial, or oblique 
aspects.

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