4
MaP Design
The term
geographic cartography is frequently used to distinguish the kinds of
maps that geographers use in world and regional studies to distinguish it from
engi-
neering cartography, which is used for the type of maps that city engineers create for
water lines, sewer lines, gas lines, and the like that would be used in planning and
engineering. Many of the principles apply to both; the difference is one of scale.
GIS stands for
geographic information systems, but the “S” is increasingly being
used to stand for
science and
studies as well.
Geographic Information Science, and
Geographic Information Studies are used increasingly. No universally agreed-upon
definition has been put forth. Surprisingly, a number of GIS texts do not even attempt
to define the term. For our purposes, the following definition, which is the most com-
mon, will be used:
A computer-based system for collecting, managing, analyzing,
modeling, and presenting geographic data for a wide range of applications. Geo-
graphic
information science, then, is the discipline that studies and uses a GIS as
a tool. GIS is not simply creating maps with a computer. The technology is a very
powerful tool for analyzing spatial data; while maps can be and are produced with
GIS, their main power is analytical. GI scientists do not consider themselves primar-
ily as mapmakers. Although they may produce maps as an end product, their primary
emphasis is on
analysis of the data. In fact, it is comparatively recently that GI sys-
tems people have given much thought to
presentation of data. The types of symbolic
representation have been limited as well, but a major recent thrust has been creat-
ing new symbol types that would be difficult or impossible to do without computer
assistance.
Mapmaking is a generic term that refers to creating maps by any method whether
manually or by computer regardless of purpose or scale.
In recent years, since the introduction of GIS, there has been debate over the rele-
vance of cartography. This debate is usually caused by misunderstanding of the terms
and the history of GIS. When computers were first introduced into mapmaking, and
classes were offered, university departments often made a distinction between cartog-
raphy classes that utilized manual methods of pen-and-ink drafting and “computer
cartography” which utilized rudimentary mapping software and CADD (computer-
assisted design and drafting) programs. Eventually the computer cartography classes
became GIS classes and all cartography classes utilized the computer with GIS soft-
ware and perhaps illustration/presentation software, but many people continued to
assume that cartography was a manual skill or one that was concerned strictly with
the layout of map elements and typography.
Visualization or
geovisualization also has no agreed-upon definition. Some iden-
tify visualization as a “private” activity that involves
exploring data to determine
relationships and patterns of spatial data. The ESRI corporation defines visualiza-
tion as “the representation of data in a viewable medium or format.” Commonly,
definitions of visualization include reference to computer technologies and interactive
maps. Two models have been proposed to explain visualization and communica-
tion and have gained wide acceptance. Both distinguish between visual thinking and
visual communication as “private” activities and “public” activities. DiBiase’s model
(Figure 1.1) distinguishes between visual thinking and visual communication, with
visual thinking being concerned with exploration of
data and visual communica-
tion being concerned with presenting data. MacEachren’s model of visualization and
communication (Figure 1.2), often called the “cartography cubed diagram,” describes
introduction 5
visualization as private, interactive, and revealing unknowns, while communication
is public, noninteractive, and revealing knowns. Although these models are generally
considered the best explanations of visualization, presentations
of animated maps
and “flythroughs” are often described as visualizations. In this book we will be con-
cerned with both the private visualizations that occur at the planning stage and the
public communication or presentation that occurs when the map is published or put
online.
